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Relief of Vienna by Bacciarelli
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John III
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Portrait
by Daniel Schultz
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Reign
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19 May 1674 – 17 June 1696
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2 February 1676
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Predecessor
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Successor
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Born
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17 August 1629
Olesko Castle, Olesko, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth |
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Died
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17 June 1696 (aged 66)
Wilanów Palace, Warsaw, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth |
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Burial
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Spouse
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Issue
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Father
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Mother
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Religion
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John III Sobieski
(Polish:
Jan III Sobieski; Lithuanian: Jonas III Sobieskis; Latin:
Ioannes III Sobiscius;
17 August 1629 – 17 June 1696), was King
of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania from 1674 until his
death, and one of the most notable monarchs of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
Sobieski's
military skill, demonstrated in combating the invasions of the Ottoman Empire,
contributed to his prowess as King of Poland. Sobieski's 22-year reign marked a
period of the Commonwealth's stabilization, much needed after the turmoil of the Deluge and the Khmelnytsky Uprising. Popular among his
subjects, he was an able military commander, most famous for his victory over
the Turks at the 1683 Battle of Vienna. After his victories over them,
the Ottomans called him the "Lion of Lechistan";
and the Pope hailed him as the savior of Christendom.
Royal titles
- Official title (in Latin): Joannes III, Dei Gratia rex Poloniae, magnus dux Lithuaniae, Russiae, Prussiae, Masoviae, Samogitiae, Livoniae, Smolenscie, Kijoviae, Volhyniae, Podlachiae, Severiae, Czernichoviaeque, etc.
- Official title (in Polish): Jan III, z łaski bożej, król Polski, wielki książę litewski, ruski, pruski, mazowiecki, żmudzki, kijowski, wołyński, podlaski i czernichowski, etc.
- English translation: John III, by the grace of God King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Ruthenia, Prussia, Masovia, Samogitia, Livonia, Smolensk, Kiev, Volhynia, Podlasie, Severia, and Chernihiv, etc.
Biography
Youth
John
Sobieski was born on 17 August 1629, in Olesko, now Ukraine,
then part of the Ruthenian Voivodeship in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth to a
renowned noble
family de Sobieszyn Sobieski of Janina coat of arms. His father, Jakub
Sobieski, was the Voivode of Ruthenia and Castellan of
Kraków;
his mother, Zofia Teofillia Daniłowicz was a
granddaughter of Hetman
Stanisław Żółkiewski. John Sobieski spent his
childhood in Żółkiew. After graduating from the Nowodworski College in
Kraków in 1643, young John Sobieski then graduated from the philosophical
faculty of the Jagiellonian University in 1646. After
finishing his studies, John and his brother Marek Sobieski left for western Europe,
where he spent more than two years travelling. They visited Leipzig, Antwerp, Paris, London, Leiden, and The Hague.
During that time, he met influential contemporary figures such as Louis II de Bourbon, Charles II of England and William II, Prince of Orange, and
learned French, German, and Italian, in addition to Latin.
Both
brothers returned to the Commonwealth in 1648. Upon receiving the news of the
death of king Władysław IV Vasa and the hostilities of the Khmelnytsky Uprising, they volunteered for the
army. They both fought in the siege of Zamość. They founded and commanded their
own banners (chorągiew) of cavalry
(one light, "cossack", and one heavy, of Polish
hussars). Soon, the fortunes of war separated the brothers. In 1649, Jakub
fought in the Battle of Zboriv. In 1652, Marek
died in Tatar captivity after his capture at the Battle
of Batih. John was promoted to the rank of pułkownik
and fought with distinction in the Battle of Berestechko. A promising commander,
John was sent by King John II Casimir as one of the envoys in the
diplomatic mission of Mikołaj Bieganowski to the Ottoman
Empire. There, Sobieski learned the Tatar
language and the Turkish language and studied Turkish military
traditions and tactics. It is likely he participated as part of the briefly
allied Polish-Tatar forces in the 1655 Battle of Okhmativ.
After
the start of the Swedish invasion of Poland known as
"The Deluge", John Sobieski was
among the Greater Polish regiments led by Krzysztof Opaliński, Palatine of Poznań which capitulated at Ujście, and
swore allegiance to King Charles X Gustav of Sweden. However,
around late March 1656, he abandoned their side, returning to the side of
Polish king John II Casimir Vasa, enlisting under the
command of hetmans Stefan Czarniecki and Jerzy Sebastian Lubomirski.
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| Portrait of John III by Jan Tricius |
Commander
By
26 May 1656 he received the position of the chorąży
koronny (Standard-bearer of the Crown). During the three-day-long battle of Warsaw of 1656,
Sobieski commanded a 2,000-man strong regiment of Tatar
cavalry. He took part in a number of engagements over the next two years,
including the Siege of Toruń in 1658. In 1659 he was
elected a deputy to the Sejm (Polish parliament), and was one of the Polish negotiators
of the Treaty of Hadiach with the Cossacks. In 1660 he
took part in the last offensive against the Swedes in Prussia, and was rewarded
with the office of starost of Stryj. Soon afterward he took part in the war against the
Russians, participating in the Battle of Slobodyshche and Battle
of Lyubar, and later that year he again was one of the negotiators of a new
treaty with the Cossacks (the Treaty of Cudnów).
Through
personal connections, he became a strong supporter of the French faction in the
Polish royal court, represented by Queen Marie Louise Gonzaga. His pro-French
allegiance was reinforced in 1665, when he married Marie Casimire Louise de
la Grange d'Arquien and was promoted to the rank of Grand Marshal
of the Crown.
In
1662 he was again elected a deputy to the Sejm, and took part in the work on
reforming the military. He was also a member of the Sejm in 1664 and 1665. In
between he participated in the Russian campaign of 1663. Sobieski remained
loyal to the King during the Lubomirski Rebellion of 1665–66, though it was
a difficult decision for him. He participated in the Sejm of 1665, and after
some delays, accepted the prestigious office of the Marshal of the Crown on 18 May that year.
Around late April or early May 1666 he received another high office of the
Commonwealth, that of the Field Crown Hetman. Soon afterward, he was
defeated at the Battle of Mątwy, and signed the Agreement of Łęgonice on the 21 July, which
ended the Lubomirski Rebellion.
In
October 1667 he achieved another victory over the Cossacks of Petro
Doroshenko and their Crimean Tatar allies in the Battle of Podhajce during the Polish–Cossack–Tatar War (1666–71).
This allowed him to regain his image as a skilled military leader. Later that
year, in November, his first child, James Louis Sobieski was born in Paris. On 5
February 1668 he achieved the rank of Grand Hetman of the Crown, the highest
military rank in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and thereby the de
facto commander-in-chief of the entire Polish Army.
Later that year he supported the French candidacy of Louis, Grand Condé for the Polish throne, and
after this candidacy fell apart, Philip William, Elector Palatine.
Following the election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki he joined
the opposition faction; he and his allies helped veto
several sejms (including the coronation ones), and his attitude once again
resulted in him losing popularity among the regular szlachta. While his
pro-French stance in politics alienated some, his military victories against
invading Tatars in 1671 helped him gain other allies. The year 1672 saw
internal politics destabilizing the Commonwealth, as the pro-French faction of
Sobieski and pro-court faction of King Michał formed two confederations,
which despite major Ottoman incursions in the south
seemed more concerned with one another than with uniting to defend the country.
The court faction called openly for confiscation of his estates and dismissal
from office, and declared him an "enemy of the state". This division
culminated in the humiliating Treaty
of Buchach, where the Commonwealth was forced to cede territories to the
Ottomans, but promise an annual tribute. Sobieski eventually succeeded in
balancing politics and national defense, and a combination of his military
victories over the invaders, and successful negotiations at the Sejm in April
1673, led to a compromise in which the court faction dropped its demands and
challenges against him.
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On
11 November 1673 Sobieski added a major victory to his list, this time
defeating the Ottomans in the Battle of Khotyn and capturing the fortress located
there. The news of the battle coincided with the death of King Michal the day
before the battle. This made Sobieski one of the leading figures of the state,
so on 19 May the following year, he was elected monarch of the Commonwealth. His candidacy was
almost universally supported, with only a dozen or so members of the diet
opposing him (mainly centered around magnates of the Lithuanian Pac family).
In light of the war, requiring Sobieski to be on the front lines, the
coronation ceremony was significantly delayed – he was crowned John III almost
two years later, on 2 February 1676.
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Relief of Vienna by Bacciarelli
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King of Poland
Though
Poland-Lithuania was at that time the largest and one of the most populous
states of Europe, Sobieski became a king of a country devastated by almost half
a century of constant war. The treasury was almost empty and the court had
little to offer the powerful magnates, who often allied themselves with foreign
courts rather than the state.
Sobieski
had a number of long term plans, including establishing his own dynasty in the
Commonwealth, regaining lost territories, and strengthening the country through
various reforms. One of his ambitions was to unify Christian Europe in a
crusade to drive the Turks out of Europe. At the beginning of his reign,
however, the Polish state was in dire fiscal straits and faced military threats
to the north. King Louis XIV of France promised to mediate a truce
between the Ottomans and Poland so that Sobieski could focus his attentions on
Prussia. The negotiations ended in failure and Sobieski's Baltic goals had to
be tempered by the immediate reality of the Ottoman threat to the south.
In
the autumn of 1674, he recommenced the war against the Ottomans and managed to
recapture a number of cities and fortresses including Bratslav, Mogilev, and Bar,
which re-established a strongly fortified line defending Poland's southern
border in Ukraine. In 1675, Sobieski defeated a Turkish and Tatar offensive
aiming at Lviv. In
1676, the Tatars began a counter-offensive and crossed the Dneper, but could
not retake the strategic town of Żórawno, and a
peace treaty (the Treaty of Żurawno) was signed soon afterwards.
Although Kamieniec Podolski and much of Podolia remained a part of the Ottoman
Empire, Poland gained the return of the towns of Bila
Tserkva and Pavoloch.
The
treaty with the Ottomans began a period of peace that was much needed for the
repair of the country and strengthening of the royal authority. Sobieski
managed to reform the Polish army completely. The army was reorganised into
regiments, the infantry finally dropped pikes,
replacing them with battle-axes, and the Polish
cavalry adopted hussar and dragoon formations. Sobieski also greatly increased the
number of cannon and introduced new artillery tactics.
Sobieski
wanted to conquer Prussia with Swedish
troops and French support. Regaining control of this autonomous province was in
the Commonwealth's best interest, and Sobieski also hoped for it to become part
of his family domain. To this end he made the secret Treaty of Jaworów (1675), but he achieved
nothing. The wars with the Ottoman Empire were not decisively won by the
Commonwealth, the ruler of
Brandenburg-Prussia made treaties with France, Prussia defeated the Swedish
invasion, and Sobieski's plans for the Commonwealth's own military campaign
against Prussia was opposed by Commonwealth magnates, many of them taking the
Prussian side. Backed by Brandenburg and Austria,
internal enemies of Sobieski even planned to dethrone him and elect Charles of Lorraine.
The
French-Prussian treaty of 1678 meant that Sobieski lost the major foreign ally
for his planned campaign against Prussia; consequently he started to distance
himself from the pro-French faction, which in turn resulted in the cooling down
of the Polish-French relations. During the Sejm of 1683, the French ambassador
was expelled for involvement with a plan to dethrone Sobieski, definitely
marking the end of the Polish-French alliance. At the same time Sobieski made
peace with the pro-Habsburg faction and started to gravitate towards an
alliance with Austria. This did not end the existence of strong internal
opposition to Sobieski; however, it changed a number of allegiances, and
further opposition was temporarily weakened through the king's successful
political maneuvering, including granting the Grand Hetman office to one of the
opposition's chief leaders, Stanisław Jan Jabłonowski.
Conscious
that Poland lacked allies and risked war against most of its neighbours (a
situation similar to the Deluge), by 1683 Sobieski allied himself with Leopold I, of the Holy
Roman Empire. Both sides promised to come to one's another aid if their
capitals were threatened. The alliance was signed by royal representatives on
31 March 1683, and ratified by the Emperor and Polish parliament within weeks.
Although aimed directly against the Ottomans and indirectly against France, it
had the advantage of gaining internal support for the defense of Poland's
southern borders. This was a beginning of what would become the Holy League, championed by Pope
Innocent XI to preserve Christendom.
Meantime,
in the spring of 1683, royal spies uncovered Turkish preparations for a
military campaign. Sobieski feared that the target might be the Polish cities
of Lwów and Kraków. To
counteract the threat, Sobieski began the fortification of the cities and
ordered universal military conscription. In July, the Austrian envoy asked for
Polish assistance. Soon afterward, the Polish army started massing for an
expedition against the Ottomans, and in August was joined by Bavarians and
Saxon allies under Charles of Lorraine.
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Sobieski sending message of victory to
the Pope after the Battle of Vienna, by Jan
Matejko, 1880, National Museum, Kraków
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Battle of Vienna
Main article: Battle
of Vienna
Sobieski's
greatest success came in 1683, with his victory at the Battle
of Vienna, in joint command of Polish and German troops, against the
invading Ottoman Turks under Kara
Mustafa. Upon reaching Vienna on 12 September, with the Ottoman army close
to breaching the walls, Sobieski ordered a full attack. In the early morning,
the united army of about 65,000–76,000 men (including 22,000, -27,000 Poles)
attacked a Turkish force of about 300,000–350,000 men. At about 5 pm,
after observing the infantry battle from the Kahlenberg
hilltop, Sobieski led the Polish husaria cavalry along with Austrians and Germans in a massive
charge down the hillside. Soon, the Ottoman battle line was broken and the
Ottoman forces scattered in disarray. At 5:30 pm, Sobieski entered the
deserted tent of Kara Mustafa and the Battle of Vienna ended.
The
Pope and other foreign dignitaries hailed Sobieski as the "Savior of
Vienna and Western European civilization." In a letter to his wife, he
wrote, "All the common people kissed my hands, my feet, my clothes; others
only touched me, saying: 'Ah, let us kiss so valiant a hand!'"
The
war with the Ottomans was not yet over, and Sobieski continued the campaign
with the Battle of Párkány on 7–9 October. After early
victories, the Polish found themselves a junior partner in the Holy League,
gaining no lasting territorial or political rewards. The prolonged and
indecisive war also weakened Sobieski's position at home. For the next four
years Poland would blockade the key fortress at Kamenets, and Ottoman Tatars would raid
the borderlands. In 1691, Sobieski undertook another expedition to Moldavia, with
slightly better results, but still with no decisive victories.
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Victorious John III Sobieski at the Battle
of Vienna in 1683, equestrian portrait by Jerzy Siemiginowski-Eleute
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Later years and death
Although
the King spent much time on the battlefields, which could suggest a good state
of health, towards the end of his life he became seriously and increasingly ill.
King
John III Sobieski died in Wilanów, Poland on 17 June 1696 from a sudden
heart attack. His wife, Marie Casimire Louise, died in 1716 in Blois, France, and
her body was returned to Poland. They are interred together in Wawel
Cathedral, Kraków, Poland. He was succeeded by Augustus II.
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King John III Sobieski blessing the Polish
attack on the Ottomans in Battle of Vienna; painting by Juliusz
Kossak.
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Legacy and significance
Sobieski
is remembered in Poland as a "hero king", victor at Vienna who
defeated the Ottoman threat, an image that became particularly well recognized
after his story was told in many works of 19th century literature. In the Polski słownik biograficzny he is
described as "an individual above his contemporaries, but still one of
them"; an oligarch and a magnate, interested in personal wealth and power.
His ambitions for the most part were instilled in him by his beloved wife, whom
he undoubtedly loved more than any throne (when being forced to divorce her and
marry the former Queen as a condition to gain the throne, he immediately
refused the throne) and tended to obey, at times blindly.
He
failed to reform the ailing Commonwealth, and to secure the throne for his heir.
At the same time, he displayed high military prowess, he was well educated and
literate, and a patron of science and arts. He supported the astronomer Johannes
Hevelius, mathematician Adam Adamandy Kochański and the historian
and poet Wespazjan Kochowski. His Wilanów
Palace became the first of many palaces that would dot the lands of the
Commonwealth over the next two centuries.
Family
On
5 July 1665, he married the widow of Jan "Sobiepan" Zamoyski,
Marie Casimire Louise de
la Grange d'Arquien (1641–1716), of Nevers, Burgundy,
France. Their children were:
- James Louis Sobieski (2 November 1667 – 19 December 1737), Crown Prince of Poland, married Countess Palatine Hedwig Elisabeth of Neuburg and had issue.
- Twin Daughters (9 May 1669), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
- Teresa Teofila (October 1670), was a frail child and failed to survive for more than a month.
- Adelajda Ludwika (15 October 1672 – 10 February 1677), called "Barbelune", died at the age of four.
- Maria Teresa (18 October 1673 – 7 December 1675), called "La Mannone", died at the age of two.
- Daughter (October 1674), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
- Teresa Kunegunda (4 March 1676 – 10 March 1730), married Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria and had issue.
- Aleksander Benedykt (6 September 1677 – 19 November 1714), died unmarried.
- Daughter (13 November 1678), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
- Konstanty Władysław (1 May 1680 – 28 February 1726), married Maria Józefa Wessel but had no issue.
- Jan (4 June 1682 – 1 January/12 April 1685), died at the age of two.
- Daughter (20 December 1684), stillborn or died shortly after birth.
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Popular culture
- John III Sobieski sometimes appears in the loading screen in the computer strategy game, Europa Universalis IV.
- His involvement in the Battle of Vienna is also referenced in the Baroque Cycle novels:
When he turned to go back to the camp, he discovered that there was another man up on this hill, a stone’s throw away: some kind of monk or holy man, perhaps, as he was dressed in a rough sackcloth robe, with no finery. But then the bloke whipped out a sword. It was not one of your needle-thin rapiers, such as fops pushed at each other in the streets of London and Paris, but some kind of relic of the Crusades, a two-handed production with a single crossbar instead of a proper guard—the sort of thing Richard the Lionhearted might’ve used to slay camels in the streets of Jerusalem. This man went down on one knee in the dirt, and he did it with verve and enthusiasm. You see your rich man kneeling in church and it takes him two or three minutes, you can hear his knees popping and sinews creaking, he totters this way and that, creating small alarums amongst the servants who are gripping his elbows. But this brute knelt easily, even lustily if such a thing were possible, and facing toward the city of Vienna, he planted his sword in the ground so that it became a steel cross. The morning light was shining directly into his grizzled face and glinting from the steel of the blade and glowing in some indifferent colored jewels set into the weapon’s hilt and crossbar. The man bowed his head and took to mumbling in Latin. The hand that wasn’t holding the sword was thumbing through a rosary—Jack’s cue to exit stage right. But as he was leaving he recognized the man with the broadsword as King John Sobieski.
— Neal Stephenson, King of the Vagabonds, chapter "The Continent"
- He appears in his pre-royalty status as a character in Mount & Blade: With Fire & Sword.
- Sobieski appears as a character in the historical novel Poland by James A. Michener in a chapter recounting the Battle of Vienna.
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